Forest Conservation in India: Policies, Challenges & Way Forward for 2026
18 min read
Jan 27, 2026
Understanding Forest Conservation in India
India's forests represent far more than timber and ecological resources. They are the lifeline of over 275 million people living in approximately 173,000 villages across the country. For UPSC aspirants preparing for 2026, understanding forest conservation transcends memorising policies—it requires grasping the intricate web of legislation, implementation challenges, judicial interventions, and the delicate balance between development and environmental protection.
The topic holds immense significance for both Prelims and Mains, appearing consistently across GS Paper I (Geography), GS Paper III (Environment), and Essay papers. The recent amendments to forest conservation laws and landmark Supreme Court orders have made this subject even more examination-worthy.
India's Forest Cover: Latest Data and Trends
India State of Forest Report 2023 (ISFR 2023)
The 18th cycle of ISFR, released by the Forest Survey of India in December 2024, presents a nuanced picture of India's forest resources.
Key Statistics from ISFR 2023:
India's total forest and tree cover stands at approximately 80.9 million hectares, constituting 24.62% of the geographical area. The forest cover alone accounts for 7,13,789 sq km (21.71% of the country's geographical area), while tree cover adds another 95,748 sq km.
The report reveals that while 16,630 sq km of forest cover was added between 2013 and 2023, approximately 97% of this increase occurred outside recorded forest areas, primarily on private or non-forest lands. This statistic carries significant implications for understanding actual conservation outcomes versus plantation-driven metrics.
Concerningly, the decade witnessed degradation of 92,989 sq km of forest, with much of the recorded increase attributed to commercial plantations like rubber and agro-forestry species such as mango and coconut—species with limited ecological value compared to natural forests.
FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025
India's forest conservation efforts received international recognition through the FAO's GFRA 2025, released in October 2025. The assessment positioned India at 9th globally in total forest area (up from 10th position), with the country maintaining its 3rd position worldwide in annual net forest area gain.
India's forests now cover 72.7 million hectares, accounting for approximately 2% of the world's total forest cover. The country also ranks 5th among global carbon sinks, with its forests removing 150 Mt of CO₂ annually during 2021-2025.
The assessment particularly highlighted India's leadership in agroforestry, with India and Indonesia together contributing around 70% of the global agroforestry area (approximately 55.4 million hectares). India also accounts for 11.8 million hectares of the world's bamboo resources.
Constitutional and Legislative Framework
Constitutional Provisions
Forests occupy a unique position in India's constitutional scheme. Following the 42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976), forests were transferred from the State List to the Concurrent List (Entry 17-A), enabling both the Centre and States to legislate on forest matters. This shift recognised the national importance of forest conservation while preserving state involvement.
Article 48-A (Directive Principles) directs the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife. Correspondingly, Article 51-A(g) (Fundamental Duties) mandates citizens to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests.
National Forest Policy, 1988
The National Forest Policy of 1988 remains the foundational document guiding India's forest management philosophy. Its key objectives include maintaining environmental stability through preservation and restoration of ecological balance, conserving natural heritage, checking soil erosion and denudation, substantially increasing forest cover through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes, and meeting the requirements of fuelwood, fodder, and minor forest produce for rural and tribal populations.
The policy set an ambitious target of bringing 33% of geographical area under forest cover (60% for hills and 20% for plains). Despite three decades of implementation, this target remains unachieved, reflecting the complexity of forest governance in a developing economy.
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 was enacted to curb the rampant diversion of forest lands for non-forestry purposes. Before its enactment, approximately 4.2 million hectares of forests were diverted for non-forestry purposes since Independence. The Act brought this under control, reducing such diversions to 1.5 million hectares over the subsequent forty years.
The Act mandates prior approval from the Central Government for dereservation of reserved forests, use of forest land for non-forest purposes, assignment of forest land by way of lease or otherwise to any private person or agency not controlled by the Government, and clearing of naturally grown trees in forest land for reforestation.
The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023
The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, which renamed the parent legislation as Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980, represents the most significant modification to India's forest conservation framework in recent decades.
Key Changes Introduced:
The Amendment narrowed the definition of forest land by specifying that the Act applies only to land declared or notified as forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or any other law, and land recorded in government records as forest as on or after October 25, 1980.
The Amendment introduced exemptions for certain categories of land including forest land along a rail line or a public road maintained by the Government providing access to a habitation, and forest land situated within 100 km of the Line of Control (LoC) or international border, proposed to be used for construction of strategic linear projects of national importance.
These changes sparked significant controversy, with environmental groups arguing that the narrower definition could potentially exclude approximately 1.97 lakh sq km of forest land from legal protection—particularly unclassed forests, revenue forests, and areas covered under the landmark Godavarman judgment.
The T.N. Godavarman Judgment: A Watershed Moment
The Supreme Court's 1996 judgment in T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India fundamentally transformed forest governance in India. The Court adopted an expansive "dictionary meaning" definition of forests, holding that the term includes not only forests as legally recognised but also any area recorded as forest in government records, irrespective of ownership.
This interpretation brought vast tracts of unclassed forests, deemed forests, revenue forests, and private forests under the protective umbrella of the Forest Conservation Act. The judgment also established the Central Empowered Committee (CEC) to assist the Court in monitoring forest-related matters.
The 2023 Amendment's attempt to restrict this definition has been challenged before the Supreme Court, which has issued significant interim orders preserving the Godavarman framework until final adjudication.
Recent Supreme Court Interventions (2024-2025)
February 2024 Order
On February 19, 2024, a bench headed by then Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud declined to stay the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, but passed a crucial interim order directing that States and Union Territories must adhere to the definition of forests as laid down in Godavarman until they complete a comprehensive identification exercise under Rule 16 of the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Rules, 2023.
The Court directed the Ministry of Environment to prepare a consolidated record of forest lands as per the 1996 definition, digitised and made public.
February 2025 Order
On February 3, 2025, a bench of Justice B.R. Gavai and Justice K. Vinod Chandran issued a more stringent order, directing the Centre and State Governments to refrain from taking any steps that would lead to 'reduction of forests'. The order responded to submissions revealing that between April and December 2024, the Forest Advisory Committee had approved diversion of 1,753.02 hectares of forest land across 56 proposals, with 14 cases showing no land offered for compensatory afforestation.
March 2025 Order
The March 4, 2025 order imposed strict timelines and personal accountability. All States and Union Territories that had not constituted Expert Committees were directed to do so within one month, with these committees required to complete the Rule 16 identification exercise within six months.
The Court's message was clear: until a credible, ground-truthed, nationwide forest inventory is built, the Godavarman dictionary definition remains binding, and no forest land can be diverted without equivalent non-forest land being first provided for compensatory afforestation.
Forest Rights Act, 2006: Implementation and Challenges
Overview of FRA
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006—commonly known as the Forest Rights Act (FRA)—represents a paradigm shift in forest governance. The Act sought to "undo the historical injustice" done to forest-dwelling tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers whose pre-existing rights were not recognised during the consolidation of state forests.
Rights Recognised Under FRA:
The Act recognises title rights (ownership of forest land up to 4 hectares for land actually being cultivated), use rights (extraction of Minor Forest Produce, grazing, traditional seasonal resource access), relief and development rights (rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction), and forest management rights (right to protect, regenerate, conserve or manage community forest resources).
Implementation Status
As of 2025, the FRA has recognised approximately 2.2 million Individual Forest Rights and over 102,889 Community Forest Rights, equivalent to 6.8 million hectares of forest land across 20 states. The average distribution rate stands at approximately 50.37% of titles over claims received. The potential to restore rights over approximately 40 million hectares of land remains.
The 2025 UNDP Report "Securing Rights, Enabling Futures" synthesised experiences from nearly two decades of FRA implementation across Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra, highlighting both achievements and persistent challenges.
Implementation Challenges
Bureaucratic Resistance: The forest bureaucracy has often misinterpreted FRA as an instrument to regularise encroachment rather than a welfare measure, creating systemic resistance to claims processing.
Documentation Requirements: OTFDs are required to produce documentary evidence proving 75 years of residence—an insurmountable hurdle for communities displaced multiple times over generations.
Inter-Ministerial Conflicts: The Act creates recurring jurisdictional tensions between the Ministry of Tribal Affairs (nodal ministry for FRA) and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (nodal agency for environmental and forestry policies).
Conflict with Other Laws: Tensions exist with the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980 and the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, particularly regarding forest diversion approvals and establishment of Protected Areas.
CAMPA: Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management
Structure and Functioning
The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) was established by Supreme Court directive in 2002, subsequently formalised through the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016. The Act and related CAF Rules, 2018 came into force on September 30, 2018.
Fund Distribution:
90% of CAF funds are allocated to State CAMPAs, while 10% is retained by the National CAMPA Authority. Currently, 34 State and UT CAMPA Authorities function across India.
Permissible Utilisation:
CAMPA funds can be used for compensatory afforestation, raising of plantations through assisted natural regeneration, enrichment of biodiversity, improvement of wildlife habitat, forest fire control, forest protection, soil and water conservation, forest and wildlife-related infrastructure development, and supply of wood-saving devices.
Recent Performance Data (2019-2024)
The Central Empowered Committee's 2025 report revealed that India achieved 85% of its compensatory afforestation target between 2019-20 and 2023-24, raising 1,78,261 hectares against a target of 2,09,297 hectares.
State-wise Performance Variations:
Gujarat, Chandigarh, Mizoram, and Madhya Pradesh achieved 100% targets. Meghalaya recorded among the lowest coverages at 22.3% (114.56 hectares against a target of 514.76 hectares).
Fund Utilisation:
Between 2019-20 and 2023-24, National CAMPA approved Rs 38,516 crore for state annual plans. States released Rs 29,311 crore to forest departments, of which Rs 26,001 crore was utilised. This indicates that only 67.5% of approved outlays were spent.
Utilisation varied significantly, with Manipur and Andhra Pradesh utilising 100% of released funds, while Delhi utilised only approximately 23% of approved funds between 2019-20 and 2023-24.
Critical Assessment
The CAG audit of Odisha's CAMPA revealed concerning findings. Out of 34 plantation sites across 12 divisions, 13 were categorised as 'failed' with only 7-36% survival rates, and 5 plantations were 'partially successful' with survival rates of 42-56%. Plantation activities costing Rs 5.38 crore failed to yield expected outcomes.
Environmental experts argue that compensatory afforestation legitimises forest clearing and amounts to 'greenwashing'. Natural forests cannot be replicated through plantations, and monoculture plantations lack the ecological diversity of primary forests.
Key Challenges in Forest Conservation
Encroachment
Forest encroachment remains a persistent challenge. The Parliamentary Committee on Petitions noted that approximately 16.21 lakh hectares of forest land was encroached after implementation of the FRA 2006.
Mining Impacts
Mining constitutes a significant threat to forest integrity. Central India (particularly Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha) suffers extensive mining-related forest loss, with coal, iron ore, and bauxite extraction driving deforestation.
Forest Fires
Forest fires pose an increasing threat, particularly with climate change intensifying dry seasons. Between 2001 and 2024, tree cover loss due to fires amounted to 36,200 hectares, peaking at 2,770 hectares in 2008.
Shifting Cultivation
Northeastern states continue to experience forest loss due to shifting cultivation (jhum), logging, and infrastructure development. The transition from traditional sustainable jhum cycles to shortened rotations has increased pressure on forest ecosystems.
Infrastructure Development
The first six months of 2025 witnessed approval for clearing 8,518.23 hectares of forest land for various projects, including 3,457.37 hectares in protected areas like national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and eco-sensitive zones.
Climate Change
Changing monsoon patterns and temperature regimes stress moisture-sensitive forest ecosystems. The Western Ghats face pressures from roads, tourism infrastructure, and plantation expansion.
Government Initiatives for Forest Conservation
National Mission for a Green India (GIM)
Launched in February 2014 under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, GIM aims to expand forest and tree cover by 5 million hectares and improve quality of cover on another 5 million hectares. The mission focuses on enhancing ecosystem services while boosting livelihood incomes of approximately 3 million forest-dependent families.
Nagar Van Yojana (NVY)
This initiative supports urban forestry through development of "city forests" in Indian towns, aimed at enhancing air quality and local biodiversity.
MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes)
MISHTI aims to restore and increase mangrove cover along India's coast to improve carbon sequestration and coastal resilience—crucial for achieving India's NDC targets under the Paris Agreement.
Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam
Launched on June 5, 2024, this nationwide campaign invites citizens to plant trees in honour of their mothers, generating widespread awareness and participation in greening efforts.
Budget Allocation 2025-26
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change received Rs 3,412.82 crore in the 2025-26 Budget, representing a 9% increase from the revised estimate of Rs 3,125.96 crore in 2024-25.
Way Forward: Recommendations for 2026
Strengthening Legal Framework
The ongoing Supreme Court litigation on the 2023 Amendment requires expeditious resolution. Any final framework must preserve the Godavarman principle while providing operational clarity for States.
Improving CAMPA Implementation
States must prioritise CAMPA fund utilisation with focus on native species plantations rather than monocultures. Regular survival audits and outcome-based assessments should replace input-based monitoring.
FRA Implementation
Fast-tracking FRA implementation, particularly Community Forest Rights recognition, would enhance both conservation outcomes and livelihood security. The Gram Sabha must be empowered as the primary institution for forest governance in scheduled areas.
Technology Integration
Satellite-based real-time monitoring, AI-enabled forest fire prediction, and blockchain-based tracking of timber and forest produce can enhance transparency and accountability.
Community Participation
Joint Forest Management committees and Van Suraksha Samitis require strengthening through capacity building, financial autonomy, and legal recognition.
Climate-Responsive Planning
Forest management plans must incorporate climate projections, assisted migration of species, and corridor connectivity to enable ecosystem adaptation.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Q. Examine the role of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 in preventing deforestation in India. How have recent amendments affected its protective scope? (UPSC Mains 2024 - GS3)
Q. Discuss the significance of the T.N. Godavarman judgment in expanding forest protection in India. (UPSC Mains 2023 - GS3)
Q. The Forest Rights Act, 2006 has been described as both a conservation law and a social justice measure. Critically examine. (UPSC Mains 2022 - GS2)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
What is the current forest cover of India according to ISFR 2023?
According to the India State of Forest Report 2023, India's total forest cover is 7,13,789 sq km, constituting 21.71% of the country's geographical area. Including tree cover (95,748 sq km), the combined forest and tree cover stands at approximately 80.9 million hectares or 24.62% of geographical area.
What is CAMPA and how does it function?
The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) manages funds collected from user agencies that divert forest land for non-forest purposes. These funds are utilised for compensatory afforestation, forest regeneration, biodiversity conservation, and related activities. 90% of funds go to State CAMPAs while 10% is retained at the national level.
What are the key changes introduced by the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023?
The 2023 Amendment renamed the Act as Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980, narrowed the definition of forest land to exclude areas not notified under forest laws or recorded in government records as on October 25, 1980, and introduced exemptions for certain strategic and border area projects.
How has the Supreme Court responded to the 2023 Amendment?
Through orders in February 2024, February 2025, and March 2025, the Supreme Court has preserved the Godavarman definition of forests as an interim measure, directed that no forest land be reduced without compensatory afforestation on non-forest land, and mandated States to complete identification of all forest lands within strict timelines.
What are the main challenges in Forest Rights Act implementation?
Key challenges include bureaucratic resistance from forest departments, stringent documentation requirements for proving 75-year residence, inter-ministerial conflicts between Tribal Affairs and Environment ministries, and tensions with other environmental laws.
What is India's global ranking in forest cover according to FAO GFRA 2025?
India ranks 9th globally in total forest area (up from 10th position), maintains 3rd position worldwide in annual net forest area gain, and ranks 5th among global carbon sinks with its forests removing 150 Mt of CO₂ annually.
Conclusion
Forest conservation in India operates at the intersection of ecological imperative, developmental aspiration, and social justice. The policy landscape—spanning the 1988 National Forest Policy, Forest Conservation Act, Forest Rights Act, and their recent amendments—reflects the nation's evolving approach to balancing these often competing demands.
For aspirants, what makes this topic examination-worthy is not just the legislative framework but the dynamic interplay between executive action, judicial intervention, and ground-level implementation. The Supreme Court's active role in preserving forest protection standards, even as legislative amendments seek to enable faster clearances, exemplifies the living constitutional dialogue that UPSC values.
Some aspirants find it easier to track such evolving policy developments through structured practice tools like PrepAiro, which can help maintain consistency in covering current affairs alongside static portions.
The path forward requires moving beyond the false dichotomy of development versus conservation. India's forests can serve both purposes—but only through governance frameworks that genuinely empower forest communities, ensure accountability in compensatory mechanisms, and recognise that ecological services cannot be replicated through plantations alone.
As you prepare for 2026, remember that forest conservation questions increasingly demand integrated answers—connecting constitutional provisions to legislative frameworks, judicial interpretations to implementation challenges, and policy objectives to ground realities. The ability to present this interconnected understanding, supported by current data and recent developments, distinguishes exceptional answers from merely adequate ones.
Last Updated: January 2026
